Echos of Femanist Revolutions

Perhaps my favorite aspect of this last chapter in our text has to be the focus on feminism, specifically international feminism. It was not until 1975, after the International Women's Year was declared, that feminism was considered to be global issue. I found it interesting that the global feminist movement looked radically different depending on the country. I find a comparison between the feminist movement and the Echo's of Atlantic revolutions. Much like the echo's of Atlantic revolutions, many women across the globe began to understand their disadvantages and fight for equal rights. Although the enlightenment ideals of feminism began in the West, they quickly spread to the global south. These enlightenment ideals are still being fought for today and the parameters of these ideals have greatly extended beyond what the first revolutionaries had imagined.

Part VI: The Most Recent Century

As an introductory to chapter twenty, the words of Alfred Anderson stand out in my mind, he stated "I was told that I was fighting a war that would end all wars, but that wasn't the case". I feel that often when we are on the brink of war, we never seem to think that it will be a big war, we tend to see things in black and white, which limits our abilities to see beyond our blueprints. It seems that wars always last much longer than anticipated, and this was no different for WW1. According to Strayer, WW1 was an accident waiting to happen. Strayer points out that, "a system of alliances intended to keep peace created obligations that drew the Great Powers of Europe into a general war" (Strayer, pg. 983).

The Great Depression followed WW1 following the stock market crash of 1929. When reading about The Great Depression it really puts things into perspective for me. We talk about unemployment today and it impact within the United States when the reality is that our current unemployment rate is not even a third of what it was in 1932. Possibly the most interesting part of The Great Depression to me is the way in which different countries went about creating new jobs and putting an end to The Great Depression.

One of the most effective leaders during The Great Depression is also one of the most criticized leaders today, Adolf Hitler. If you take a look at the snapshot chart in chapter 20 page 933 of the new text, you can see the differences in the duration and extent of unemployment between the United States, Germany, and Great Britain, between the three countries the United States fared much worse. Roosevelt's New Deal was relatively ineffectual while Hitler's approach which featured extreme nationalism, a single party dictatorship, and an extreme socialism was highly effective in putting a stop to unemployment. While Hitler's approach was extremely devastating and detrimental I think his approach and leadership skills are something to study, because he was highly effective as a leader.

In our text Strayer reflects on the purpose and value of studying history. He claims that most students would state that the purpose of studying history is so that the people of the future do not repeat the same mistakes of the past. Strayer contradicts this statement pointing out that in many cases such as: the lessons of WWII and the unnecessary wars in Vietnam and Iraq, in Strayers opinion this is history repeated. He draws a conclusion that the wars of past centuries do share one broad similarity: “all of them led to unexpected consequences” (Strayer, pg. 1016), Strayer closes with the idea that “history repeats itself most certainly only in its unexpectedness” (Strayer, pg 1016). I would have to agree with this statement, history does repeat itself however it is disguised and almost indistinguishably similar, however the global impacts and implications are the same.

Part IV: The Early Modern World

According to Strayer (2013, pg. 611) in labeling an era the early modern era, certain identifying factors must be present that are still present today. My favorite aspect of the early modern era would have to be the Scientific Revolution, as this greatly impacted the way in which we seek out information today. Strayer is quick to point out that although in the beginning of the early modern era “Europeans ruled the Americas and controlled the world’s sea routes” and despite the fact that the birth of modern science began in Europe, Europe was far from being the world’s leader. Towards the end of part four in our text books the question of “Why Europe” rises. Why was it that Europe was the first to make scientific leaps and bounds when other countries were far more advanced in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc.? The answer is space. Not the space that engulfs our planet that we examine in the sky every night, but rather space and freedom to ask questions and to explore. By the thirteen century the European legal system provided many institutions with the space and independence to explore. This openness to discovery permeated through universities and allowed students and scholars to study whatever they saw fit to study. This is when the divide between science, philosophy, and theology began. Furthermore, history proves that we (even today) have a lot to learn from other cultures; assimilation is key to discovering new ideas. This was the case in the thirteenth century, when Europe (being much more culturally diverse) was able to assimilate their collected knowledge with that of other cultures.

            Another devastating as well as interesting piece of the Early Modern World was the Atlantic Slate Trade. I think the majority of slave trade that we are exposed to in films and through readings was during the plantation slavery, which seems brutal in and of itself, however, the Atlantic Slave trade was unimaginably brutal. It amazes me the products that were used to trade for slaves. “The exchange for slaves, African sellers sought both European and Indian textiles, cowrie shells, European metal goods, firearms and gunpowder, tobacco and alcohol, and various decorative items” (Strayer, 2012, pg. 690). Decorative items for a person’s life, that’s just unfathomable to me. When I read about this part of history, it always makes me reflect on the current trades and the way in which we handle business internationally now. If someone were looking back centuries from now and reflecting on our present time period, what would they say was inhumane that we currently engage in? The ever present segregation? Eating meat? Our blatant disregard for our planet?

Part III Continued: An Age of Accelerating Connections

Part III Continued: An Age of Accelerating Connections

I find the making of Christian Europe extremely fascinating simply based what I always considered to be a rapid expansion. I was always under the impression that the expansion of Christianity globally was rather quick; however I learned that this was not the case regarding the Roman Empire. Although Christianity received state support during the fourth century C.E., it faced many setbacks.  Despite the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Christianity became increasingly popular among England, France, Germany, and Scandinavia. The text explains that the making of Christian Europe was a prolonged and tentative process fill with resistance and many setbacks.  I have a newer version of the text which provides information regarding the “Advice on Dealing with “Pagans”. The church authorities (missionaries, bishops, and the pope) where advocates of compromise and where much less resistant to assimilation than previous religious leaders during that time period. The pope essentially urged tolerance, which I found to be an extremely wise approach. I also found the architecture and ancient art to be extremely revealing in telling a story of what was important to these people during this time. For example, The Ladder of Divine Ascent is a perfect portrayal of the stairway to heaven and the spiritual journey through life. What I particularly like about art and artifacts is that is provides a visual portrayal of a perception during a specific era. Although art can be interpreted differently depending on the individual, it seems much less subject to change than oral traditions, oral stories, or even written words. Take the pastoral nomads for example. Until recently, the history books generally provided an inaccurate depiction of pastoral nomads. “Normally they entered the story only when they were threatening or destroying established civilizations. In presenting a largely negative image of pastoral peoples, historians were reflecting the long-held attitudes of literate elites in the civilizations of Eurasia” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 539).

Part III: The Age of Accelerating Connections

Part 3: The Age of Accelerating Connections

For me, the development of Silk Roads, Sea Roads, and Sand Roads is extremely fascinating as this was the beginning of what greatly defines our world today. As mentioned in the text, these roads “linked peoples both economically and culturally, prompted the emergence of new states, and sustained elite privileges in many ancient civilizations…they resembled the globalized world of modern times (Strayer, 2013, pg. 342). It was through the Silk Roads (particularly during prosperous periods of time) when many particular goods were traded and sold for high prices due to their rareness in different cultures. Some of these products were: mirrors, gunpowder, paper, furs, livestock, herbal medicine, dyes, swords, artwork, and olive oil to name a few (pg. 320). These roads are responsible for the spread of cultural diversity all over the world. The text notes that Buddhism was a “cultural product of Indian civilization, spread widely throughout Central and East Asia, owing much to the activities of merchants along the Silk Roads. What I also found interesting about the various roads of transit was the spread of disease. As pointed out in the text, “Each of the major population centers of the Afro-Eurasian world had developed characteristic disease patterns, mechanisms for dealing with them, and in some cases immunity to them” (323). When comparing commerce prior to the 1500s to commerce today some of the main differences are: prior to the 1500s most people produced products mainly for their own consumption rather than for the market, “the world economy of the modern era increasingly had a single center which came to dominate much of the world both economically and politically…Economic relationships among third-wave civilizations were more balanced and multi-centered than those of the modern era” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 342).

            From 500-1300 C.E. China witnessed many changes in society. As pointed out in the text, Strayer believes these changes were due to internal factors and political conflicts within China. “The political conflicts of the “era of warring states” provided the setting and the motivation for the emergence of Confucianism and Daoism…The personal qualities and brutal policies of Shihuangdi played a role in China’s unification…and the subsequent creation of a widespread network of canals and waterways as well as the country’s technological achievements served to maintain that unity for a long period of time…The massive inequalities of Chinese society generated the peasant upheavals which periodically shattered that unity and led to new ruling dynasties” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 392). One aspect that I found particularly interesting was the relationship between China and Buddhism. It was the Silk Road that initially brought Buddhism into China, and it was initially only practiced by the merchants and monks living in China. “In half the millennium between roughly 300 and 800 C.E., Buddhism took solid root  in China within both elite and popular culture, becoming a permanent, through fluctuating, presence in Chinese life” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 389).

            When comparing the history of China to the history of Islam, one thing that stands out to me is the comparison of Islamic law to that of Chinese law and the effect that religion had on these countries. Both countries have strict rules and regulations that were created to keep order and deter anyone from rebelling against that order; however religion has had almost the opposite effect on each country. In China we had the birth of Buddhism which challenges laws and regulations. In Islam we have rules and regulations that are supported by the popular religion. Although Islam encompasses great diversity between the Sunni and Shia understandings of faith, both are in accordance with laws that are in place (although political opinions vary). It just amazes me how one single aspect of a country (such as religion) can change the course of a country within a limited amount of time.

Part II: Second-Wave Civilizations

Through our previous readings and in our last class we touched on the topic of what constitutes a civilization. We agreed that a civilization includes: a social hierarchy, specialized roles, economy/trade, rules and laws, religion and spirituality, agriculture, and surplus. These features that define a civilization are also present in empires; however they are presented on a much larger and more intricate scale. An empire is “at one level, political systems that exercise coercive power, however the term is normally reserved for larger and more aggressive states, those that conquer, rule, and extract resources from other states and peoples” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 118).  It seems that the larger and more specific an empire becomes, the closer it comes to its impending doom and destruction. We see this in the Greco-Persian wars when the Persians began to expand into Greek territory which resulted in the destruction of the Persians. I found the oppressive nature of empires to be interesting and somewhat unnerving, because if you think about it, what is an empire without its people.  If we tear an empire down to its roots we would find that the foundation is just as important as the components that follow. Although a hierarchy that oppresses its weak and poor is common, it cannot function without the weak and poor.

Religion has been a powerful tool that has aided many empires in calming disorder and setting examples that all “good citizens” should follow. We see this through: the Confucian Answer, the Daoist Anwer, South Asian religions, the Buddhist Challenge, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, the Greek Way of Knowing, Christianity, etc. It seems that all religions are closely tied to societal expectations, a sense of right and wrong (which is closely tied to culture), and the present hierarchy that is in place. While the birth of religions has aided in calming disorder and unifying city-states, empires, and countries, it has also divided one empire or country from another. Religion has also been used as a tool to bolster oppression. Religion has greatly influenced and legitimized the many class and gender inequalities that are present in second-wave civilizations. “In both China and India birth determined social status for most people; little social mobility was available for the vast majority; sharp distinctions and great inequalities characterized social life; religious or cultural traditions defined these inequalities as natural, eternal, and ordained by the gods” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 224). I find it the commonalities in religion interesting because although different religions worship different gods they essentially all follow the same basic set of rules. I remember taking a world religion class a year or so ago and discovering that many religions have changed dramatically over the decades as they have taken ideas and stories from one another and meshed them into their own.

Part I: First Things First

Part I: First Things First

Having taken a cultural anthropology class a year ago I was somewhat familiar with the first 150,000 years of human life on earth prior to reading this text. I am familiar with the theory that Homo sapiens emerged from eastern and southern Africa and that migration took place from about 100,000-60,000 years ago from Africa to: Eurasia, Australia, Americas, and the Islands of the Pacific.  

I found it interesting that the first human societies were largely egalitarian, meaning they lacked many inequalities of wealth and power. I also found it interesting that the male and female relationships were considered equal; however monogamy was not surprising to me because many homo species are monogamous. It seems that as we transitioned from a hunter-gatherer society to a more agricultural society the earth as well as the human race began to face many new and threatening challenges. As agriculture became a common practice, “it provided the foundation for growing populations, settled villages, animal-borne diseases, horse-drawn chariot warfare, cities, states, empires, civilizations, writing, and literature” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 26).

 The text hints at the idea that the down turn of society surfaced with the birth of civilization. I find it unlikely and difficult to believe that civilization was a “global phenomenon, showing up independently in seven major locations scattered around the world during several millennia after 3,500 B.C.E.” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 62). The text seemed to provide a few scenarios that could have occurred regarding the onset of civilization. I tend to lean toward the idea that similarly to the globalization of agriculture, civilization was learned through “neighboring groups and the slow colonization and migration of agricultural people as growing populations pushed them outwards” (Strayer, 2013, pg. 34).

          I found it particularly interesting that slavery as well as hierarchies of gender emerged along with civilization. Slaves were initially prisoners of war, criminals, and debtors. Many females were slaves because the first prisoners of war were females. Slavery was not tied to the color of skin and did not have a connection to those of African heritage. I always wondered at what point in history women became subordinate to men, and Strayer believes this occurred during the breakthroughs in agriculture. Many of the agricultural jobs were geared toward the success of men due to their physical strength and stature. Due to the growing populations women were pregnant for a good majority of their lives which limited them from much of the physical labor in the fields.

Overall, I learned a lot from the first two chapters of this text and look forward to gaining more knowledge regarding world history.